Digital Inclusion in Education: The Relationship between Internet Access, Digital Literacy, and Academic Performance at the Global Level
Keywords:
Digital inclusion, Internet acces, Digital literacy, Academic performance, Global education, ASEANAbstract
Digital inclusion in education is increasingly seen as a crucial prerequisite for improving the quality of learning and academic performance in the era of globalization and digital transformation. However, the relationship between internet access, digital literacy, and academic achievement remains complex, particularly in developing countries. This study aims to analyze the relationship between digital inclusion, as represented by internet access and digital literacy, and academic performance in the context of global education, with an emphasis on Indonesia and the ASEAN region. This study uses a qualitative approach with a content analysis design on global secondary data sourced from Our World in Data, the World Bank, UNDP, and the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. The analysis focuses on indicators of the quantity and quality of education, participation and completion of education across levels, and internet access in schools as a form of digital inclusion. Data are analyzed descriptively and comparatively to identify patterns, gaps, and implications for academic performance. The results show that increased access to education and digital infrastructure has not automatically been followed by improved quality of learning outcomes. Indonesia and several ASEAN countries have made significant progress in expanding access to education and internet access in schools, but still face a gap between the quantity of education and the quality of learning. These findings confirm that the effectiveness of technology utilization, digital literacy, and pedagogical quality are key factors in determining the impact of digital inclusion on academic performance. This research contributes to the digital education literature by highlighting the importance of a multidimensional approach to understanding digital inclusion. A limitation of this study lies in the use of aggregate data and proxy indicators of digital literacy. Future research is recommended to utilize microscale data and mixed-method approaches to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the relationship between digital inclusion and academic achievement.
References
ASEAN Secretariat. (2022). Declaration on the digital transformation of education systems in ASEAN.
Bakhtawar, B. (2020). An Introduction to Qualitative Research (Flick, U. (2014). An introduction to qualitative research. Sage.) Book Review for Academic Consultation. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.11809.22887
Bazeley, P. (2013). Qualitative Data Analysis : Practical Strategies.
Bond, M., Bedenlier, S., Buntins, K., Kerres, M., & Zawacki-Richter, O. (2020). Facilitating Student Engagement in Higher Education Through Educational Technology: A Narrative Systematic Review in the Field of Education. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 20, 315–368. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225822177
Bulman, G., & Fairlie, R. W. (2016). Technology and Education: Computers, Software, and the Internet. Handbook of the Economics of Education, 5, 239–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63459-7.00005-1
Burns, T., & Gottschalk, F. (2020). Education in the Digital Age: Healthy and Happy Children, Educational Research and Innovation. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1787/1209166a-en
Chandrasekar, A., Clark, S. E., Martin, S., Vanderslott, S., Flores, E. C., Aceituno, D., Barnett, P., Vindrola-Padros, C., & Vera San Juan, N. (2024). Making the most of big qualitative datasets: a living systematic review of analysis methods. Frontiers in Big Data, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fdata.2024.1455399
Dastyari, A., & Jose, C. (2024). Achieving inclusive and equitable quality education for all: The importance of digital inclusion. Alternative Law Journal, 49(4), 282–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/1037969X241295798
Davis, D., Chen, G., Hauff, C., & Houben, G. J. (2018). Activating learning at scale: A review of innovations in online learning strategies. Computers and Education, 125, 327–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.05.019
Efgivia, M. G. (2020). Pemanfaatan Big Data Dalam Penelitian Teknologi Pendidikan. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225482192
Falck, O., Mang, C., & Woessmann, L. (2018). Virtually No Effect? Different Uses of Classroom Computers and their Effect on Student Achievement. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 80(1), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/obes.12192
Fraillon, J., Ainley, J., Schulz, W., Friedman, T., & Duckworth, D. (2020). Preparing for life in a digital world: IEA international computer and information literacy study 2018 international report. In Preparing for Life in a Digital World: IEA International Computer and Information Literacy Study 2018 International Report. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38781-5
Guest, G., MacQueen, K., & Namey, E. (2014). Applied Thematic Analysis. Applied Thematic Analysis. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483384436
Hatlevik, O. E., Guomundsdóttir, G. B., & Loi, M. (2015). Digital diversity among upper secondary students: A multilevel analysis of the relationship between cultural capital, self-efficacy, strategic use of information and digital competence. Computers and Education, 81, 345–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.019
Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
Martínez-Bravo, M. C., Chalezquer, C. S., & Serrano-Puche, J. (2022). Dimensions of Digital Literacy in the 21st Century Competency Frameworks. Sustainability (Switzerland), 14(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031867
Ndibalema, P. (2022). Constraints of transition to online distance learning in Higher Education Institutions during COVID-19 in developing countries: A systematic review. E-Learning and Digital Media, 19(6), 595–618. https://doi.org/10.1177/20427530221107510
Niemann, D., Seitzer, H., & Martens, K. (2025). Tackling the Digital Divide? A Comparative Policy Analysis of International Organizations’ Varying Approaches to the Digitalization of Education. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 27(1), 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/13876988.2024.2385361
Nurul Huda, & Kurniyati Indahsari. (2021). Pengaruh Rata-Rata Lama Sekolah, Angka Harapan Hidup DanPengeluaran Perkapita Terhadap Pertumbuhan EkonomiProvinsi Jawa Timur Tahun 2014-2018. Buletin Ekonomika Pembangunan, Vol. 2 No.1(1), 55–66.
OECD. (2023). OECD Digital Education Outlook 2023: Towards an Effective Digital Education Ecosystem. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1787/c74f03de-en
Reynolds, R. (2021). JanvanDijk. (2020). The digital divide. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 208 pp. £17.99 (paperback) (ISBN 9781509534456). Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 72(1), 136–138. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.24355
Rodiah Nasution, & M Sholih Salimul Uqba. (2024). Preparing For Tomorrow’s Challenge: Tren Teknologi & Media Dalam Pendidikan Masa Depan. KIRANA : Social Science Journal, 1(2), 76–86. https://doi.org/10.61579/kirana.v1i2.167
Scheerder, A., van Deursen, A., & van Dijk, J. (2017). Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes. A systematic review of the second- and third-level digital divide. Telematics and Informatics, 34(8), 1607–1624. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2017.07.007
Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Tondeur, J. (2019). The technology acceptance model (TAM): A meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach to explaining teachers’ adoption of digital technology in education. Computers and Education, 128, 13–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.009
Siddiq, F., Hatlevik, O. E., Olsen, R. V., Throndsen, I., & Scherer, R. (2016). Taking a future perspective by learning from the past - A systematic review of assessment instruments that aim to measure primary and secondary school students’ ICT literacy. Educational Research Review, 19, 58–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.05.002
Suyudi, I., Sudadio, S., & Muhyidin, A. (2026). Implementation of the Governor’s Policy on Free Education in Improving the Quality of State Vocational High School Education in Banten Province, Indonesia. Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia Gemilang, 6, 81–90. https://doi.org/10.53889/jpig.v6i1.841
Thomas, S. (2014). The Rebirth of Education: Schooling Ain’t Learning by LantPritchettCenter for Global Development, Washington DC, 2013 Pp. 274. ISBN 978‐1‐933286‐77‐8. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 28(2), 107–110. https://doi.org/10.1111/apel.12076
Timotheou, S., Miliou, O., Dimitriadis, Y., Sobrino, S. V., Giannoutsou, N., Cachia, R., Monés, A. M., & Ioannou, A. (2023). Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools’ digital capacity and transformation: A literature review. Education and Information Technologies, 28(6), 6695–6726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11431-8
van Deursen, A. J. A. M., & van Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2019). The first-level digital divide shifts from inequalities in physical access to inequalities in material access. New Media and Society, 21(2), 354–375. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818797082
Vargas-Montoya, L., Gimenez, G., & Fernández-Gutiérrez, M. (2023). ICT use for learning and students’ outcomes: Does the country’s development level matter? Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, 87, 101550. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seps.2023.101550
Wu, X. Y. (2024). Exploring the effects of digital technology on deep learning: a meta-analysis. Education and Information Technologies, 29(1), 425–458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12307-1
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Ros Patriani Dewi (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms.
1. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
2. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
3. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
